Virgil is one of the most celebrated poets of the early Roman Empire. His most famous work, the Aeneid, chronicles the journey of Aeneas, a Trojan prince who flees the fall of Troy during the Trojan War. Aeneas eventually travels across the Mediterranean to Italy, where his descendants, Romulus and Remus, are destined to found the city of Rome.
Early Life
Virgil was born on October 15, 70 BC, in Andes, a small village near Mantua, north of the Po River in Cisalpine Gaul. Although his province did not receive full Roman citizenship until 51 BC, his father, being of old Latin stock, was a citizen. While there is debate over his family’s wealth, it is widely believed they were affluent enough to provide Virgil with a solid education. He received early schooling in Cremona and Milan (Mediolanum), where he earned his toga virilis, symbolising manhood and citizenship. His early education fostered a deep appreciation for both Greek and Roman literature.
Upon arriving in Rome, Virgil initially pursued the study of rhetoric with Epidius, whose notable students included Octavian and Mark Antony. However, Virgil disliked rhetoric and soon left Rome to study philosophy at the Epicurean school of Siron in Naples, where he forged a friendship with the poet Horace.
By the time Virgil was about 30, the Roman Republic was in turmoil. After Julius Caesar’s assassination, his heir, Octavian (later Augustus), became embroiled in a civil war. In 42 BC, after Octavian's victory at the Battle of Philippi, land was confiscated to reward army veterans, and Virgil’s family land was seized.
Eclogues
By this time, Virgil had formed a connection with Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, a prominent author and patron of the arts. Maecenas, a wealthy Roman and close friend of Augustus, cultivated a circle of young poets, including Virgil and Horace. Through him, Virgil developed a close relationship with the emperor, who believed that these poets could help restore the Roman Empire to its former ideals.
Around 39–38 BC, Virgil published his first collection of ten poems, the Eclogues. This early work reflects his love of rural life, depicting an idealised Arcadia where shepherds’ lives and loves unfold. However, it also contains political undertones, referencing the upheavals caused by the civil wars. The Eclogues touch on Octavian's eviction orders following the Battle of Philippi, mentioning three figures involved in land confiscations: the jurist and consul Publius Varus, the author and consul Gaius Pollio, and the poet Gaius Gallus.
Georgics
The Georgics were composed after Octavian’s decisive victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium and was dedicated to his patron, Maecenas. Like the earlier Eclogues, the Georgics celebrated the simplicity and virtues of rural life. However, they also reflected on the devastation brought by civil wars, particularly the confiscation of land and the depopulation of Italy and its provinces. Through these poems, Virgil made a heartfelt plea for the restoration of land and a return to agricultural life.
By the time the Georgics were published, the poet had firmly established himself within the inner circle of the imperial court. After the work was presented to Augustus, Virgil withdrew from the city, his focus already shifting to his ambitious new project, the Aeneid.
Aeneid
The central theme of the Aeneid revolves around the origins, time, and reasons for the founding of Rome by Romulus and Remus. The epic tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan prince and son of the goddess Venus, who escapes during the final moments of the Trojan War. Aeneas learns of his destiny to establish a great city on the Italian peninsula. His journey, much like the wanderings of Odysseus in Homer’s Odyssey, takes him across the seas, eventually reaching Latium. While Aeneas himself does not directly found Rome, his descendants are destined to do so. In this sense, one of the complexities in the poem is the significant time gap between the Trojan War (12th century BC) and the founding of Rome (8th century BC). This temporal inconsistency highlights that Aeneas doesn’t fulfil his destiny by founding Rome personally, but rather lays the foundation for his descendants to do so.
The poem was enthusiastically embraced by Augustus, who claimed descent from Aeneas and viewed the epic as a fulfilment of Rome’s divine destiny. Virgil, however, was not fully satisfied with his work and believed that Rome’s fate was to forgive the conquered and subdue the proud in war.
Death & Legacy
Virgil worked on the Aeneid for eleven years but died before completing its final revisions. Dissatisfied with the work, he asked his friend, the poet Lucius Varius Rufus, to destroy it upon his death. Rufus, however, refused to follow through with Virgil’s request. While travelling in Greece, Virgil fell ill in Megara and died on September 21, 19 BC, before he could return to Italy. He was buried at his villa in Naples, and despite his wishes, Augustus had the epic published posthumously.
Virgil’s works, particularly the Aeneid, have endured for over two millennia, continuing to be read, studied, and revered. The poet has inspired generations of authors who followed him, most notably Dante Alighieri. In The Divine Comedy, Dante chose Virgil as his guide through the nine circles of hell in the Inferno.
