The First Nootka Convention, signed on October 28, 1790, addressed the escalating tensions between Britain and Spain over control of Nootka Sound on the Pacific Northwest coast.
Background
In the mid-18th century, European exploration of the Pacific Northwest was sparse, but by the century’s close, the region had become a battleground for control among Britain, Spain, Russia, and the United States.
Spain had claimed the Pacific coast of the Americas for centuries, basing its sovereignty on several historical milestones. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera papal bull, dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal, a division later formalised by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama, claiming the Pacific Ocean for Spain and extending the country’s territorial ambitions.
As Russian fur traders expanded into Alaska in the mid-18th century, Spain responded by establishing a naval base at San Blas, Mexico, and sending expeditions to the northwest to investigate Russian intentions and reaffirm its own territorial claims. Meanwhile, British interest in the region intensified after Captain James Cook of the Royal Navy explored Nootka Sound in 1778, which spurred British fur traders to the area. Britain would later use Cook’s visit to Nootka Sound to assert their own claims.
By the late 1780s, Nootka Sound was the Pacific Northwest’s primary anchorage and a focal point for Spanish, British, and Russian interests. British trader John Meares returned in 1788, claiming to have purchased land from Chief Maquinna, which Spain contested. In 1789, Spanish commander Esteban José Martínez arrived to establish Santa Cruz de Nuca, the first European settlement in British Columbia—escalating the struggle for dominance over the Pacific Northwest.
The Nootka Crisis
Martínez arrived at Nootka Sound on May 5, 1789, and found three ships already present: the American vessels Columbia Rediviva and Lady Washington, and the British ship Iphigenia. He seized the latter and arrested its captain, but after a few days, released him with a warning not to return. On June 24, Martínez formally asserted Spanish sovereignty over the entire northwest coast in front of British and American witnesses. Just days later, on July 2, British ships Princess Royal and Argonaut arrived. Martínez ordered Princess Royal’s captain to leave, citing Spanish territorial and navigation rights. He later seized the Argonaut, arresting its captain, James Colnett, his crew, and Chinese workers aboard, as Colnett intended to establish a settlement in violation of Spanish claims.
Tensions further escalated on July 13 when a meeting between Martínez and Nuu-chah-nulth leader Callicum ended in tragedy, with the latter shot dead. This incident created a rift between the Spanish and the Indigenous tribes, leading Chief Maquinna to flee to Clayoquot Sound.
On July 29, the Spanish supply ship Aranzazu arrived with orders to evacuate Nootka Sound by year’s end. The Spanish completed their withdrawal by October, taking with them the Princess Royal, Argonaut, and the Fair American, another captured vessel. As the crisis unfolded, British Prime Minister William Pitt and Spanish Chief Minister José Moñino y Redondo exchanged tense communications. Both nations mobilised naval forces, raising the spectre of war. Though France initially considered supporting Spain due to its alliance, it ultimately decided against military involvement, prompting negotiations to avoid war.
The Nootka Conventions
The first Nootka Convention, known as the Nootka Sound Convention, was signed on October 28, 1790, to resolve the escalating crisis between Britain and Spain. The agreement stipulated that the northwest coast would be open to traders from both nations, that captured British ships would be returned, and that an indemnity would be paid. It also called for the restoration of British land claims at Nootka Sound, a provision that proved challenging to implement. Spain contended that the only land in question was a small parcel, while Britain asserted that British explorer Meares had purchased the entire Nootka Sound area from local chief Maquinna.
Amid these tensions, the Nuu-chah-nulth tribes grew increasingly suspicious of Spain, especially after the 1789 killing of Callicum. Despite this, Spanish efforts to mend relations succeeded, regaining the trust of Maquinna and reinforcing its claims to land ownership.
Negotiations over the specifics of the Nootka Convention took place in the summer of 1792, led by Spanish commander Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra and British negotiator George Vancouver. Vancouver’s mission was to secure the return of land and property confiscated from British fur traders and to establish a formal British presence to support the fur trade. The negotiations between Vancouver and Bodega y Quadra were fraught with difficulty, as Spain sought to set the boundary at the Strait of Juan de Fuca, while Vancouver insisted on British claims to the Columbia River and opposed a new Spanish post at Neah Bay. Ultimately, they agreed to refer the matter to their governments.
By 1793, as Britain and Spain became allies against France, the Nootka issues diminished in importance. The British foreign minister, Grenville, dropped territorial claims to avoid further tensions. The Third Nootka Convention was signed on January 11, 1794, resulting in both nations abandoning their claims at Nootka Sound, with a ceremonial transfer of the post at Friendly Cove to the British. The Nootka Conventions established that neither nation would maintain a permanent base at Nootka Sound, yet both could send ships to the area, thereby preventing other nations from claiming sovereignty.
Aftermath
The Nootka Conventions marked a significant shift in international law, challenging the idea that a country could assert exclusive sovereignty without actual settlement. It became clear that claims backed solely by papal grants or the "right of first discovery" were insufficient; nations needed to establish physical occupation to assert territorial claims.
For Britain, the outcome was perceived as a victory, as it seemed to confirm that Spain held no rights north of San Francisco. Despite this, British merchants continued to face restrictions on direct trade with Spanish America, and the final agreement failed to delineate clear boundaries. However, the region became more accessible to British trade, solidifying Britain's status as the dominant power in the Pacific. By the early 1820s, the British fur trade, particularly through the Northwest Company (NWC), expanded significantly toward China. Starting in 1797, the NWC conducted overland expeditions into the Rocky Mountains, leading to the expansion of British North America. This culminated in 1843 with the establishment of a settlement on Vancouver Island, which became a Crown Colony six years later.
Conversely, Spain faced a political humiliation, and its rights in the Pacific Northwest would later be acquired by the United States through the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819. The U.S. claimed exclusive sovereignty, a stance that became pivotal during the Oregon boundary dispute, where Britain countered by referencing the Nootka Conventions. This dispute remained unresolved until the signing of the Oregon Treaty in 1846, which established the current international boundary between Canada and the United States.
